Online hate speech has real-world consequences, including hate crimes and physical attacks.

Research shows that exposure to online hate speech weakens empathy [1], which may lead to more criminal behavior [2].

Data reported by the US [3] [4] [5] [6], the UK [7], and European countries [8] indicate that in recent years, online hate speech has exploded, and hate-related crimes are at a record high.

Most of the hate speech still occurs on mainstream social media platforms.

Despite tech companies' commitments to making their platforms safe, hate speech continues to find its way onto major platforms [9] [10] [11].

Top 3 platforms on which respondents experienced online abuse (percentages - multiple answers). [9], p.24

During the COVID-19 pandemic, there was a spike in hate speech targeting women, with the majority of the abuse occurring on mainstream social media platforms like Twitter (Current X), Facebook, Instagram, WhatsApp, Slack, and Snapchat.

Social media platforms claim to take action, but there are caveats.

Social platforms report record numbers in the removal of hate speech [12], yet their commitments are not always consistent [13] [14] [15].